Participatory mapping reveals biocultural and nature values in the shared landscape of a Nordic UNESCO Biosphere Reserve

A free Plain Language Summary can be found within the Supporting Information of this article. Today, we are facing global sustainability challenges that complex and interconnected. Human activities such as land-use change contributing to biodiversity crisis simultaneously impacting our own well-being. To address these challenges, need develop a holistic understanding multifunctional landscapes work for people (Kremen & Merenlender, 2018). In 1971, UNESCO launched Man Biosphere (MAB) programme which aims ‘to establish scientific basis improvement relationships between their environments’ (UNESCO, 2017, p. 12). 1974, MAB began designating Reserves (BRs) today comprises 727 BRs in 131 countries World Network Reserves. These examples social-ecological systems spanning numerous biomes ecosystems have been described broadly learning sites, living laboratories or model regions sustainable development (Kratzer, 2018; Schultz et al., Starger, 2016) forming implementation recently updated Strategy (2015–2025) Lima Action Plan (2016–2025) 2017). The clearly highlights sites expected sources stewards ecosystem services (ES) contribute achieving UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (United Nations, 2015). Seville 1996) gives three primary interconnected functions: (a) conservation, (b) (c) logistic support project, education, research monitoring, implemented through system zonation comprising core, buffer transition zones. Importantly, ‘conservation’ across BR refers not only but also cultural diversity conservation. focus on biocultural consideration ‘people nature’ (Mace, 2014; Pascual 2021) align closely with changing conservation narratives (Bridgewater, 2002; Gavin 2015; 2021). It is important understand whether functions, periodic decadal reviews set out by mixed compliance results (Coetzer Price 2010; UNESCO, 1996). Thus, developing processes monitoring early stages BR's lifetime will enable goal monitoring. concept powerful lens human–nature (Folke 2011) meeting targets SDGs (Plieninger 2013; Wood ES was developed highlight importance human well-being (Ehrlich Ehrlich, 1981; Westman, 1977) intention secure public interest (Gómez-Baggethun 2010). Ecosystem now mainstream literature becoming evident policies related land planning (Longato 2021; Maes, Egoh, 2012). Translating knowledge action policy an part problem-driven including several areas (Cowling 2008; Crouzat 2018), initiatives like Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform Biodiversity Services (IPBES, 2019) provided impetus broad-scale ES. While monetary valuation ESs has generated political protection, preservation enhancement, Payments schemes (e.g. Muradian Vatn, 2010), there very real concerns nature commodification Moreover, ways value diverse often independent date underrepresented decision-making (Pascual For just equitable decision-making, it therefore explore alternatives dependent market mechanisms consider multiple inform planning, know how vary quantitatively spatially different contexts Schröter 2014). burgeoning field mapping (Burkhard 2017) focussed regulating provisioning fewer studies (Crossman Egoh 2012; Martínez-Harms Balvanera, Over past 15 years, shift methodologies approaches used assessing ES, from largely single discipline biophysical economic methods, towards higher proportion pluralistic socio-cultural methods (Martín-López 2019; Schutter Hicks, This methodological accompanies conceptual developments thinking include contributions makes Díaz Maes Public participation geographical information (PPGIS) emerged promising tool values (reviewed Brown Fagerholm, asking participants geolocate maps. Cultural, lesser degree prominent PPGIS-ES either due typology (i.e. limited ES) because participant preferences and/or ability connect (Brown example, Scholte al. (2015) point may always perceive capacity provide perceptions shaped interactions with, nature. Therefore, should expect non-experts more likely they experience regularly less appreciate mass flow regulation. power PPGIS generate spatial especially place them, significant advantage over date. Spatial distributions valuable management since social acceptance when decisions informed wide section society 2020). However, little evidence had much impact real-world Likewise, integration remains uncommon There barriers lack local find negotiate process allow live up its promise decision support. framework entry integrate approach assessments into decision-making. Objective clear reference science defined them ‘an integrated, problem-solving draws full range scientific, traditional [I]ndigenous transdisciplinary way identify, present future economic, environmental, ethical societal development’ 19). definition underscores Indigenous knowledge, science–society processes, education (Reed, well suited objectives indigenous strong place-based dimension type (Raymond 2009). Indeed, recent report called common protocol recommendations broad stakeholder inclusion use maps engagement (Vasseur Siron, 2019). Nordhordland (NBR) Norway (Kaland 2018) designated 2019. collaboration public, private academic actors presents opportunity baseline values, NBR. Such all Strategy. We assess stakeholders NBR participatory engaging key then widely inhabitants, part-time governance organisations other values. First, ask where hotspots located Second, if distinct bundles NBR, what those are, occur landscape characteristics associated them. Third, compare contrast Finally, reflect relation wider potential BRs. west coast covering c. 6,698 km2 stretching open Atlantic Ocean coastal flats west, mountains east reaching 1,313 m a.s.l. at Kleivfjellet (Figure 1). Extensive fjord comprise component Sognefjorden; Europe's longest, Norway's longest deepest (205 km long 1,308 maximum depth). Terrestrial landcovers greatest areal extents sparse vegetation, forest along marine fjords ocean 1; Table S1). climate wet-temperate oceanic mean annual precipitation 2,400 mm west-east gradient mountains; receive 1,300 per year while upland 3,000 mm. Mean temperatures warmest coldest months 13.0–14.5°C 3.0–3.0°C, respectively, areas. Temperature variation modest difference being 11°C inland greater 16°C. Employment predominantly activity dominated petroleum industry centred Mongstad largest oil refinery businesses. region provider hydroelectricity national level production Modalen Masfjorden municipalities. Although agriculture fishing major players, nonetheless culturally significant. Aquaculture fisheries industries large pelagic fish stock salmon aquaculture projected expand future. nine municipalities contained entirely boundaries, further five partially boundaries permanent population main 54,000 concentrated low-lying southwestern 1a) additional 15,000 seasonal residents holiday-home owners 332,000 municipalities, primarily Bergen municipality (c. 281,190 people). four localities core zone each Figure zones represent seascape outer archipelago (Lurefjorden), (National Salmon Fjord Loneelvi River) mountain (Stølsheimen; Each locality unique encompassing breadth heritage monuments summer farms Stølsheimen, agricultural Lurefjorden, Lurefjorden National Fjord. survey design steps. application document identify locally relevant published already included referring specifically guide statements survey. were based previously Fagerholm 2016, Plienigner capturing subjective components (cf. workshop test identified us perceived any missed, interpretable assembled group facilitated existing relationship NBR's coordinators, scientists. food producers (2), planners (3), advisors (2) members working (2). Two both farmers advisors. final comprised 12 (Appendix general attempted link Common International Classification (CICES; Haines-Young Potschin, modified statements, so understandable feedback obtained during group. balance commonly accepted interpretability stakeholders. ‘hunting fishing’ ‘wild plants, berries mushrooms food’ classified linked interaction, recreation traditions (Stryamets Vári considered consistent socio-demographics similar (Malmborg Meacham 2016; Quieroz Stryamets web-based Maptionnaire (Mapita Oy, 2019, https://app.maptionnaire.com/en/6998/) collect Survey recruited various targeted email lists involved resource management, regional government, agriculture, forestry energy production; articles about project one newspaper two newspapers; boosted media adverts; promotions accounts. encouraged share snowballing. addition, organised 18 workshops libraries community halls 10 February 13 April 2020 (Table S2). scheduled after 11 March cancelled COVID-19 restrictions. restriction meant within, could hold workshop. Workshop using advertisements posting flyers schedule webpages, library noticeboards listings. At workshops, short presentation given, allowing questions participants, followed attendees take laptops us. guidance functionality clarified had. total number 14 able 30 ranging zero eight (median 2). See S2 details attendance. 3 2 June 2020. Participants mapped points map many few chose; recommended 20 points. asked socio-demographic information. Ethics approval Norwegian Centre Research Data (Naturgoder i Biosfæreområde, Ref no. 657151). All gave consent accordance conditions approved prior filling kernel densities visualise categories participants: provisioning, Hausner Kernel density estimates calculated r (R Core Team, 2020) sp.ke function spatialEco package (Evans, cell size 100 appropriate bandwidth category (Brunsdon Comber, nearest neighbour (NN) ratios clustering nni assessed values—groups repeatedly co-occurring (Raudsepp-Hearne 2010)—at grid scale. no ‘perfect size’ determining chose 500 enough capture closest most study point-densities removed cells principal analysis (PCA) reduce dimensionality data Plieninger selected explained least 65% variance applied varimax rotation Zoderer best clusters determined hierarchical factor loadings ‘NbClust’ NbClust (Charrad 2014) setting distance measure ‘euclidean’, method ‘ward.D’, index ‘alllong’ Beale's (‘alphaBeale’) significance 0.1 (Madrigal-Martínez Miralles García, Cells assigned ‘hclust’ ‘cutree’ functions cluster visualised flower petal diagrams ggplot2 (Wickham, 2016). entropy (MaxEnt) modelling distribution ES-value bundles. MaxEnt ecology biogeography species models (SDMs) increasingly surveys Muñoz 2020; Sherrouse 2011, variables resolution (distance roads, buildings, hiking trails, percentage cover land, water, LULC types, elevation, slope, richness LULC, see S3 S1) previous (Bagstad 2017; drivers Modelling performed ‘maxent’ dismo withholding 20% evaluation 10,000 background (Hijmans Models evaluated area under receiver operator curve (AUC) scores 0.5–0.7, 0.7–0.9 0.9 poor, moderate excellent performances, respectively. compared predicted ‘calc.niche.overlap’ ENMtools (Warren Dinnage, computes overlap 1 (identical distributions) 0 (no all). overlaid counted stakeholders’ Before overlaying points, created polygon around account precision inaccuracies (Fagerholm smaller than avoid too terrestrial aquatic Flower plots relative differences whole among specific respondents (Χ2 = 105.79, p < 0.001, representation populations, Fedje, residuals 4.43, 2.51 7.76, respectively) underrepresentation Osterøy residual −2.95). typically older levels (age: Χ2 350.71, 0.001; education: 74.66, sex sample reported high Overall, 433 3,155 individual Cultural (2,277 points), (524 points) (354 Outdoor (768 appreciation (366 points). Protection extreme events/weather, mitigation (51, 81 106 respectively). Mapped almost identical differed slightly moderately zone. was, however, marked hunting fishing, clean air, water soil Furthermore, absent noticeable adjacent aside Stølsheimen area. Here, outdoor relatively low frequencies Loneelvi) environments buffer) Values significantly clustered, although 3; Cultural—NN 0.605, z-score −36.0, p-value Provisioning—NN 0.587, −18.1, Regulating—NN 0.710, −10.4, 0.001). general, closer settlements western side 3). PCA seven factors 66.6% loadings. Hierarchical first rotated scale 4). classify follows: ‘passive values’ (Bundle 1, n 369 cells), characterised non-animal wild values; ‘multifunctional landscapes’ 2, 229 even spread classes; ‘cultural 3, 372 ‘active recreation’ 4, 872), dominance animal resources’ 5, 216 bundle varying degrees. clustered (NN ratio 0.34, 31.83), 0.73, −11.03). probability generally highest probabilities tended coastlines ‘outdoor (niche 0.895) distributed, elevations restricted 0.832) strandflat fjords. 0.678) 0.720), environment fjords, freshwater lakes rivers. Topography (elevation slope), motorised access roads) buildings) contributed 5). Elevation, passive Motorised vehicle access, forested landscapes. Distance buildings bundle. trails slope active trail, resources AUC > 0.79 (passive 0.81; 0.88; 0.86; 0.79; 0.81). As places fostering connections nature, constitute valuation. Our recreation, biodiversity, heritage, mental tend close live. show differ reflective goals, prominently services, bundles, determine substantially categories. predominance distinctive feature European context Raymond frequency typical characteristic studies. acknowledged choices (five) (three fewer), insufficient explain exercise) valued, resulting (Brown, strength challenging indicators viewshed analysis, trail density) georeferenced photographs; Crossman 2013). combined greatly advances Stakeholders Europe (Baumeister deep connection Norwegians fundamental identity written law though Allemannsretten (everyman's right/freedom roa